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Emancipation

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In , Hill was appointed Head of the Department of Stipendiary Magistrates, a position he held for many years. In , Jordon became mayor Kingston, a post he held for 14 years, and he was speaker for the Assembly in the early s. The rebellion was sparked on 7 October, when a black man was put on trial and imprisoned for allegedly trespassing on a long-abandoned plantation.

During the proceedings, James Geoghegon, a black spectator, disrupted the trial, and in the police's attempts to seize him and remove him from the courthouse, a fight broke out between the police and other spectators. While pursuing Geoghegon, the two policeman were beaten with sticks and stones. Among them was Baptist preacher Paul Bogle. A few days later on 11 October, Mr. Paul Bogle marched with a group of protesters to Morant Bay. When the group arrived at the court house they were met by a small and inexperienced volunteer militia.

The crowd began pelting the militia with rocks and sticks, and the militia opened fire on the group, killing seven black protesters before retreating. The troops met with no organised resistance, but regardless they killed blacks indiscriminately, most of whom had not been involved in the riot or rebellion: according to one soldier, "we slaughtered all before us… man or woman or child".

In the end, black Jamaicans were killed directly by soldiers, and more including Paul Bogle were arrested and later executed, some without proper trials. Paul Bogle was executed "either the same evening he was tried or the next morning. George William Gordon , a Jamaican businessman and politician, who had been critical of Governor John Eyre and his policies, was later arrested by Governor John Eyre who believed he had been behind the rebellion.

Despite having very little to do with it, Gordon was eventually executed. Though he was arrested in Kingston, he was transferred by Eyre to Morant Bay, where he could be tried under martial law. The execution and trial of Gordon via martial law raised some constitutional issues back in Britain, where concerns emerged about whether British dependencies should be ruled under the government of law, or through military license. He and William Bogle, Paul's brother, "were both tried together, and executed at the same time.

During most of the eighteenth century, a monocrop economy based on sugar production for export flourished. In the last quarter of the century, however, the Jamaican sugar economy declined as famines, hurricanes, colonial wars, and wars of independence disrupted trade. Despite the British Parliament 's abolition of the slave trade , under which the transportation of slaves to Jamaica after 1 March was forbidden, sugar continued to have some success over the next decade. By the s, however, Jamaican sugar had become less competitive with that from high-volume producers such as Cuba and production subsequently declined.

By sugar output was less than half the level achieved in When sugar declined as a crop, the British government was persuaded to emancipate the slaves with the abolition of slavery in and full emancipation within four years. Unable to convert the ex-slaves into a sharecropping tenant class similar to the one established in the post-Civil War South of the United States , planters became increasingly dependent on wage labour and began recruiting workers abroad, primarily from India , China , and Sierra Leone.

Many of the former slaves settled in peasant or small farm communities in the interior of the island, the "yam belt," where they engaged in subsistence and some cash crop farming. The second half of the nineteenth century was a period of severe economic decline for Jamaica. Low crop prices, droughts, and disease led to serious social unrest, culminating in the Morant Bay rebellions of Governor Eyre took this opportunity to abolish the Assembly, which was becoming increasingly influenced by free black and mixed-race representatives. Jordon and Osborn strongly opposed the measure, but it was pushed through by Eyre despite their opposition.

However, renewed British administration after the rebellion, in the form of Crown colony status, resulted in some social and economic progress as well as investment in the physical infrastructure. Agricultural development was the centrepiece of restored British rule in Jamaica.

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In the first large-scale irrigation project was launched. In the Jamaica Agricultural Society was founded to promote more scientific and profitable methods of farming. Also in the s, the Crown Lands Settlement Scheme was introduced, a land reform programme of sorts, which allowed small farmers to purchase two hectares or more of land on favourable terms. Between and , the character of landholding in Jamaica changed substantially, as sugar declined in importance.

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As many former plantations went bankrupt, some land was sold to Jamaican peasants under the Crown Lands Settlement whereas other cane fields were consolidated by dominant British producers, most notably by the British firm Tate and Lyle. Although the concentration of land and wealth in Jamaica was not as drastic as in the Spanish-speaking Caribbean , by the s the typical sugar plantation on the island had increased to an average of hectares. But, as noted, smallscale agriculture in Jamaica survived the consolidation of land by sugar powers.

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The number of small holdings in fact tripled between and , thus retaining a large portion of the population as peasantry. Most of the expansion in small holdings took place before , with farms averaging between two and twenty hectares. The rise of the banana trade during the second half of the nineteenth century also changed production and trade patterns on the island. Bananas were first exported in , and banana farming grew rapidly thereafter. By , bananas had replaced sugar as Jamaica's principal export. Production rose from 5 million stems 32 percent of exports in to an average of 20 million stems a year in the s and s, or over half of domestic exports.

As with sugar, the presence of American companies, like the well-known United Fruit Company in Jamaica, was a driving force behind renewed agricultural exports. The British also became more interested in Jamaican bananas than in the country's sugar. Expansion of banana production, however, was hampered by serious labour shortages.

The rise of the banana economy took place amidst a general exodus of up to 11, Jamaicans a year. In Jamaican planters, still reeling from the loss of slave labour, suffered a crushing blow when Britain passed the Sugar Duties Act , eliminating Jamaica's traditionally favoured status as its primary supplier of sugar. The Jamaica House of Assembly and successive governors stumbled from one crisis to another until the collapse of the sugar trade , when racial and religious tensions came to a head during the Morant Bay rebellion of This move ended the growing influence of the people of colour in elective politics.

The practice of barring non-whites from public office was reinstated, despite opposition from leading people of colour such as Jordon. In the new Crown colony government consisted of the Legislative Council and the executive Privy Council containing members of both chambers of the House of Assembly, but the Colonial Office exercised effective power through a presiding British governor. The council included a few handpicked prominent Jamaicans for the sake of appearance only. In the late nineteenth century, Crown colony rule was modified; representation and limited self-rule were reintroduced gradually into Jamaica after The colony's legal structure was reformed along the lines of English common law and county courts, and a constabulary force was established.

The smooth working of the Crown colony system was dependent on a good understanding and an identity of interests between the governing officials, who were British , and most of the nonofficial, nominated members of the Legislative Council, who were Jamaicans. The elected members of this body were in a permanent minority and without any influence or administrative power. The unstated alliance — based on shared color, attitudes, and interest — between the British officials and the Jamaican upper class was reinforced in London, where the West India Committee lobbied for Jamaican interests.

However, the property qualification and a literacy test ensured that only a small percentage of the black Jamaican majority could vote in these elections. Jamaica's white or near-white propertied class continued to hold the dominant position in every respect; the vast majority of the black population remained poor and disenfranchised. As black Jamaicans becoming discontented with their lack of political representation, they turned to the support of two leaders who challenged the racial hierarchy, both insisting that black people were the equals of the white people who dominated the government and the island's wealth.

Alexander Bedward was a Revivalist preacher who espoused the concept of pan-Africanism. Dr Joseph Robert Love founded a newspaper and campaigned for black representation in the political arena. Both men were the forerunners of Marcus Mosiah Garvey.

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In , the government passed an act to transfer government offices from Spanish Town to Kingston. Kingston had been founded as a refuge for survivors of the earthquake that destroyed Port Royal. The town did not begin to grow until after the further destruction of Port Royal by the Nick Catania Pirate Fleet's fire in By it had become the largest town and the center of trade for Jamaica.

The government sold land to people with the regulation that they purchase no more than the amount of the land that they owned in Port Royal , and only land on the sea front. Gradually wealthy merchants began to move their residences from above their businesses to the farm lands north on the plains of Liguanea. In the governor , Sir Charles Knowles , had decided to transfer the government offices from Spanish Town to Kingston. It was thought by some to be an unsuitable location for the Assembly in proximity to the moral distractions of Kingston, and the next governor rescinded the Act.

The Kingston earthquake destroyed much of the city. Considered by many writers of that time one of the world's deadliest earthquakes, it resulted in the death of over eight hundred Jamaicans and destroyed the homes of over ten thousand more. Marcus Mosiah Garvey , a black activist and Trade Unionist , founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League in , one of Jamaica's first political parties in , and a workers association in the early s.

Garvey also promoted the Back-to-Africa movement , which called for those of African descent to return to the homelands of their ancestors. Garvey, a controversial figure, had been the target of a four-year investigation by the United States government. He was convicted of mail fraud in and had served most of a five-year term in an Atlanta penitentiary when he was deported to Jamaica in Garvey left the colony in to live in the United Kingdom , where he died heavily in debt five years later.

He was proclaimed Jamaica's first national hero in the s after Edward P. Seaga , then a government minister, arranged the return of his remains to Jamaica. In Jamaica petitioned the United States Congress to pardon Garvey on the basis that the federal charges brought against him were unsubstantiated and unjust. The Rastafari movement , an Abrahamic religion , was developed in Jamaica in the s, following the coronation of Haile Selassie I as Emperor of Ethiopia. Haile Selassie I was crowned as Emperor of Ethiopia in November , a significant event in that Ethiopia was the only African country other than Liberia to be independent from colonialism and Haile Selassie was the only African leader accepted among the kings and queens of Europe.

Over the next two years, three Jamaicans who all happened to be overseas at the time of the coronation each returned home and independently began, as street preachers, to proclaim the divinity of the newly crowned Emperor as the returned Christ. First, in December , Archibald Dunkley , formerly a seaman, landed at Port Antonio and soon began his ministry; in , he relocated to Kingston where the King of Kings Ethiopian Mission was founded.

Joseph Hibbert returned from Costa Rica in and started spreading his own conviction of the Emperor's divinity in Benoah district, Saint Andrew Parish , through his own ministry, called Ethiopian Coptic Faith ; he too moved to Kingston the next year, to find Leonard Howell already teaching many of these same doctrines, having returned to Jamaica around the same time. With the addition of Robert Hinds , himself a Garveyite and former Bedwardite, these four preachers soon began to attract a following among Jamaica's poor. Elected black Council members, such as barrister J. Smith, strongly criticised the colonial government in the early 20th century.

While acknowledging these criticisms, the British government did little to address them. The Great Depression caused sugar prices to slump in and led to the return of many Jamaicans, who had migrated abroad for work. Economic stagnation, discontent with unemployment, low wages, high prices, and poor living conditions caused social unrest in the s.

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