Online dating region in NDjamena Chad

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Until , facilities and services were subject to strict rationing, and schools remained closed. Following differences between Goukouni and Muammar Gaddafi and international disapproval of Libyan intervention, the Libyan troops left the capital and Chad in The city had only 9, inhabitants in , but a decade later, in , the population had almost doubled to 18, In , after independence, the population reached , In , it surpassed half a million with , N'Djamena's primary economic source is agricultural work.

The economy in N'Djamena is therefore almost totally reliant on good weather, making the economy struggle in years with low rainfall. There is a high demand for skilled laborers within N'Djamena to work for oil and gas sectors, as well as laborers for foreign non-governmental organizations , medical services , and English teaching. While primarily an administrative center, the city includes the Nassara Strip commercial centre and residential areas, such as Mbololo , Chagoua , Paris Congo and Moursal. The main commercial avenue of the city is the Avenue Charles de Gaulle.

The wet season lasts from June to September, with the heaviest precipitation occurring in August. The dry season essentially covers the remaining eight months. Based on annual temperatures, N'Djamena is one of the hottest major cities on the planet.

The city's highest temperatures are usually seen between March and May, just before the onset of the heavier rains. However, outside of the warmest months of the year, nights in N'Djamena are generally pleasant. Attractions in the city include the Chad National Museum , a cathedral and several mosques. In Africa, education can be thought of as a luxury even though it is compulsory and free and has been since Chad's independence in After progressing through elementary school, some students go on to a university. The American International School of N'Djamena is a popular choice within the city for secondary schools as international institutions are of a higher standard than public schools.

Many of the students in international schools are children of executives, diplomats, and non-governmental organization employees. Among the places of worship , they are predominantly Muslim mosques. The city has no railway links.

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However, railways have been proposed. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Capital of Chad. Coat of arms. Location in Chad and Africa. Archived from the original on 11 January Archived from the original on Retrieved The Free Dictionary. Chad in Pictures. Twenty-First Century Books.

Encyclopedia of twentieth-century African history. Archived from the original on 25 March Retrieved 29 November Chad: A country study. Federal Research Division.

Civil War and Multilateral Mediation, — Buijtenhuijs, Le Frolinat et les guerres civiles du Tchad , pp. February 2, Archived from the original on February 4, However, these estimates were usually based on partial observations and thus provided incomplete information and increased misunderstanding of the Lake Chad hydrological cycle. Other studies only investigated the southern pool of the lake 11 , during some months in a year 12 , or only focused on groundwater Only two studies investigated in details the seasonal variations of the Lake Chad, but focusing on the previous decades, the s and the s 6 , Now, in the view of the challenges arisen in the Lake Chad area during the last decades, it is crucial to better characterize the Lake Chad hydrological cycle.

Indeed, the Lake Chad region is currently facing multiple security risks, including livelihood and violent conflicts. Even though the current conflict was triggered by violence linked to the armed groups known as Boko Haram, the crisis has deep roots in longstanding challenges.

Widespread inequality and decades of political marginalization have instilled and entrenched sense of exclusion in the region But several observations demonstrated that these challenges are further exacerbated by climate change In case of the Lake Chad region, the uncertainties of the unpredictable rainfall patterns induced by climate change are significantly impacting the resilience of the communities, and challenging the international community to promote an appropriate peaceful and sustainable development activities. In this study, we quantify the variations of freshwater storage over the Lake Chad watershed and analyze the variability of the hydrological cycle over the region during the last two decades using multi-satellite obserations.

Due to the decrease in number of hydrometeorological gauge stations and difficulties to obtain data consistently and accurately from remote regions, we combine complementary information from different satellite observations, e. This multi-sensor approach is particularly important because it allows to better evaluate the open water surface compared to the surface covered by vegetation, which is one of the main question when applying remote sensing techniques in the context of shallow lakes, especially the Lake Chad These complementary satellite-based products are combined to estimate the variation of surface water storage SWS , which is then subtracted from the terrestrial water storage TWS derived from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment GRACE satellite observations, for determining the relative contributions of soil moisture and groundwater variations to the Lake Chad basin see Methods.

It is a hydrologically closed drainage system in the Central Sahel region of northern Africa, characterized by a south to north climatic gradient as a consequence of latitudinally decreasing rainfall.

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Lake Chad is the terminal lake of this drainage system. In present-day conditions, the aquifer is recharged by rainfall and seepage from the lake to the Quaternary Phreatic Aquifer. This reservoir ensures the chemical regulation of the lake and allows freshwater to persist despite the strong evaporative conditions This Quaternary Phreatic Aquifer is separated from the underlying sedimentary aquifers of the Continental Terminal and Pliocene by a thick clay layer These two continental sediment layers are separated aquifers in the Nigerian part of the basin and merge below Lake Chad to form a single aquifer with a total thickness exceeding m.

They are confined and of artesian type. Deep aquifers groundwater are mainly exploited in northern Nigeria and in eastern Niger. S3 in the supporting information. In the northern pool, surface water slightly decreases Fig. The northern pool shows higher variability, with completely dry periods during dry seasons between and , whereas it was partly inundated during dry seasons in other periods between and , and between and However, compared to the s and s decades when the northern pool was totally dry during both dry and wet seasons, until the beginning of the s, water was still coming every year during rainy season with an amount variable from year to year.

As the consequence, the total surface water extent of Lake Chad slightly reduced over the last 20 years, mostly due to the decreasing trend of the northern pool. The descending trend of surface water extent was higher during the — period compared to the — period. The large difference mainly comes from the way to define surface water. In this study, we only consider open water bodies as surface water, whereas, in previous studies, water under vegetation was included as surface water.

If we assumed that all vegetation area of Lake Chad is also inundation, then the total surface water extent in October was 12, km 2 , in the range of previous results, e.

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Similarly, recent studies 11 , 13 reported the minimum, maximum and average size of Lake Chad for the — period were only km 2 , km 2 and km 2 , respectively. These numbers are 2—3 times lower than what we report here. But if we only consider the southern pool as it was done in previous studies, we found its monthly average minimum and maximum surface water extent are km 2 and km 2 , which are close to what have been already reported 11 km 2 and km 2 , respectively.

Time series top and anomaly bottom of surface water extent of the northern pool blue , southern pool red and Lake Chad green , for the — period. The trends are also plotted.

detailed map of NDjamena and neighboring regions

The decrease of surface water extent in the northern pool can be explained by a combination of several factors. The decrease of the Komadugu Yobe discharge during the last decades could partly explain this decreasing trend Another driving factor could be the increase of permanent vegetation cover within Lake Chad. S 9 in supporting information. This increase of the permanent vegetation cover also contributes to the reduction of the runoff from the southern pool to the northern pool through the Great Barrier. Since the severe droughts during the s, Lake Chad split into two pools, increasing favorable conditions for the vegetation growth, especially over the Great Barrier.

Complementary satellite observations are used to estimate monthly variations of the surface and sub-surface water storage for the last 20 years see Methods. When estimating the surface water storage SWS variations of Lake Chad and its southern pool, we observed that it exhibits no sensible trends over the last two decades, showing a significant seasonal variation with a mean annual amplitude of 1. This time lag could be explained by the fact that the SWS in the southern pool reacts to rainfall that normally occur earlier than discharge of the Chari-Logone River.

TWS exhibits a well-marked seasonal with an amplitude of 4 km 3 , similar to the one from SWS but more than 3 times higher. The water content of the subsurface can be separated in two components: the root zone soil moisture obtained from the Global Land Evaporation Amsterdam Model 25 see supporting document for details of the GLEAM dataset , and the groundwater after removal of the root zone soil moisture from the subsurface storage.

Linear trends of SWS and TWS show slight increases of both surface water and total water volume for the year and year periods 0. This increasing trend in the context of the current climate conditions confirms that the southern pool of the lake is not shrinking but, on the contrary, slightly increasing over the last 20 years as as an open lake modulated by the sill that separated from the northern pool.

The southern pool is mainly supplied by the Chari-Logone River inputs that show increasing trends observed at four gauge stations along its catchment Fig. S 11 in supporting information. Based on 36 Cl concentration and stable oxygen data of both layers, it has been demonstrated that the deep aquifer water is composed of groundwater older than 1 Ma years, recharged during previous humid periods 27 , Because of the limited contribution of root zone soil moisture, the variation of TWS is strongly controlled by groundwater from the Quaternary Phreatic Aquifer.

Combining ground-based observations 20 , modelling lake levels 19 , 29 over the last seven decades, and our satellite-derived data over the last two decades, Lake Chad showed higher levels during the s—60s compared to the present day Fig. Despite the recovery of rainfall since mid s Fig. Bottom: Annual precipitation at four gauge stations within the Lake Chad basin.

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