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The process of colonization was a combination of voluntary integration into the Russian Empire and outright seizure. The Little Horde and part of the Middle Horde signed treaties of protection with Russia in the s and s. Major parts of the northeast and central Kazakh territories were incorporated into the Russian Empire by With the Russian seizure of territories belonging to the Senior Horde in the s, the tsars effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.

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The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called "Great Game" between it and Great Britain. Russian efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakh people, and by the s, most Kazakhs resisted Russia's annexation largely because of the disruption it wrought upon the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late s, sought to preserve the Kazakh language and identity.

There were uprisings against colonial rule during the final years of tsarist Russia, with the most serious occurring in Although there was a brief period of autonomy during the tumultuous period following the collapse of the Russian Empire, the Kazakhs eventually succumbed to Soviet rule.

In , the area of present-day Kazakhstan became an autonomous republic within Russia and, in , a Soviet republic. Soviet repression of the traditional elites, along with forced collectivization in late ss, brought about mass hunger and led to unrest. Soviet rule, however, took hold, and a communist apparatus steadily worked to fully integrate Kazakhstan into the Soviet system.

Kazakhstan experienced population inflows of thousands exiled from other parts of the Soviet Union during the s and later became home for hundreds of thousands evacuated from the Second World War battlefields. The period of the Second World War marked an increase in industrialization and increased mineral extraction in support of the war effort.

At the time of Soviet leader Josif Stalin's death, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural-based economy. In , Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev initiated the ambitious "Virgin Lands" program to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy, along with later modernizations under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, sped up the development of the agricultural sector, which to this day remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population.

Growing tensions within Soviet society led to a demand for political and economic reforms, which came to a head in the s.

Kazakhstan (12/04)

In December , mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs took place in Almaty to protest the methods of the communist system. Soviet troops suppressed the unrest, and dozens of demonstrators were jailed. In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and find expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost.

Caught up in the groundswell of Soviet republics seeking greater autonomy, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty as a republic within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics U. Following the August abortive coup attempt in Moscow and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan declared independence on December 16, The years following independence have been marked by significant reforms to the Soviet command-economy and political monopoly on power.

Under Nursultan Nazarbayev, who initially came to power in as the head of the Kazakh Communist Party and was eventually elected President in , Kazakhstan has made significant progress toward developing a market economy, for which it was recognized by the United States in The country has enjoyed significant economic growth since , partly due to its large oil, gas, and mineral reserves. The president is the head of state.

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The president also is the commander in chief of the armed forces and may veto legislation that has been passed by the Parliament. President Nursultan Nazarbayev, who has been in office since Kazakhstan became independent, won a new 7-year term in the election that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe said fell short of international standards. The prime minister, who serves at the pleasure of the president, chairs the Cabinet of Ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of government.

There are three deputy prime ministers and 16 ministers in the Cabinet. Daniyal K. Akhmetov became Prime Minister in June Kazakhstan has a bicameral Parliament, comprised of a lower house the Mazhilis and upper house the Senate.

Single mandate districts popularly elect 67 seats in the Mazhilis; there also are 10 members elected by party-list vote rather than by single mandate districts. The Senate has 39 members. Two senators are selected by each of the elected assemblies Maslikhats of Kazakhstan's 16 principal administrative divisions 14 regions, or oblasts, plus the cities of Astana and Almaty.

The president appoints the remaining seven senators. Mazhilis deputies and the government both have the right of legislative initiative, though the government proposes most legislation considered by the Parliament. Elections to the Mazhilis in September yielded a lower house dominated by the pro-government Otan party, headed by President Nazarbayev.

KAZAKHSTAN: 40 months, 65 criminal convictions

Two other parties considered sympathetic to the president, including the agrarian-industrial bloc AIST and the Asar party, founded by President Nazarbayev's daughter, won most of the remaining seats. Opposition parties, which were officially registered and competed in the elections, won a single seat during elections that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe said fell short of international standards.

Kazakhstan is divided into 14 oblasts and the two municipal districts of Almaty and Astana. Each is headed by an akim provincial governor appointed by the president. Municipal akims are appointed by oblast akims. Kazakhstan's monetary policy has been well managed. Its principal challenges in were to manage strong foreign currency inflows without sparking inflation. In inflation did not remain under control, registering at 6. In inflation was 6.

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Because of its strong macroeconomic performance and financial health, Kazakhstan became the first former Soviet republic to repay all of its debt to the International Monetary Fund IMF in , 7 years ahead of schedule. In March , the U. Department of Commerce graduated Kazakhstan to market economy status under U. The change in status recognized substantive market economy reforms in the areas of currency convertibility, wage rate determination, openness to foreign investment, and government control over the means of production and allocation of resources. In September , Kazakhstan became the first country in the former Soviet Union to receive an investment-grade credit rating from a major international credit rating agency.

There has been a noticeable reduction in the ratio of debt to GDP observed in past years; the ratio of total governmental debt to GDP in was The upturn in economic growth, combined with the results of earlier tax and financial sector reforms, dramatically improved government finances from the budget deficit level of 3.

Government revenues grew from In , Kazakhstan adopted a new tax code in an effort to consolidate these gains. Kazakhstan furthered its reforms by adopting a new land code on June 20, and a customs code on April 5, Oil and gas is the leading economic sector. Production of oil and gas condensate in Kazakhstan amounted to Kazakhstan raised oil and gas condensate exports to Gas production in Kazakhstan in amounted to Industry analysts believe that planned expansion of oil production, coupled with the development of new fields, will enable the country to produce as much as 3 million barrels per day by , lifting Kazakhstan into the ranks of the world's top 10 oil-producing nations.

Major oil and gas fields and their recoverable oil reserves are Tengiz 7 billion barrels ; Karachaganak 8 billion barrels and 1, billion cubic meters of natural gas ; and Kashagan billion barrels. Kazakhstan instituted an ambitious pension reform program in There are 16 saving pension funds in the republic. State Accumulating Pension Fund is the only state fund, which is planned to be privatized in The National Bank oversees and regulates the pension funds.

The pension funds' growing demand for quality investment outlets triggered rapid development of the debt securities market. Pension fund capital is being invested almost exclusively in corporate and government bonds, including Government of Kazakhstan Eurobonds. The Kazakhstani banking system is developing rapidly. The National Bank has introduced deposit insurance in its campaign to strengthen the banking sector.

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Agriculture Agriculture accounted for Grain Kazakhstan is the sixth-largest producer in the world and livestock are the most important agricultural commodities. Agricultural land occupies more than The available agricultural land consists of Chief livestock products are dairy goods, leather, meat, and wool. The country's major crops include wheat, barley, cotton, and rice. Wheat exports, a major source of hard currency, rank among the leading commodities in Kazakhstan's export trade. In Kazakhstan harvested Kazakhstan has significant deposits of coal, iron, copper, zinc, uranium, and gold.

Kazakhstan, Russia, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan established the Eurasian Economic Community in to re-energize earlier efforts at harmonizing trade tariffs and the creation of a free trade zone under a customs union. In the years since Kazakhstan's independence, the two countries have developed a wide-ranging bilateral relationship. The current Ambassador is John Ordway, who assumed his post in September Kazakhstan showed leadership when it renounced nuclear weapons in The United States has assisted Kazakhstan in the removal of nuclear warheads, weapons-grade materials, and their supporting infrastructure.

In , Kazakhstan transferred more than a half-ton of weapons-grade uranium to the United States. In Kazakhstan removed its last nuclear warheads and, with U. These companies are concentrated in the oil and gas, business services, telecommunications, and electrical energy sectors. Kazakhstan has made progress in creating a favorable investment climate although serious problems, including arbitrary enforcement of laws, remain. In , Kazakhstan and the United States established the U. In , the two governments entered into the U.

The programs were designed to promote market reform and to establish a foundation for an open, prosperous, and democratic society. Since , the U. Agency for International Development USAID has administered technical assistance programs to support Kazakhstan's transition to a market economy, fully integrated into the world trade system. These programs include cooperation in privatization, fiscal, and financial policy; commercial law; energy; health care; and environmental protection.

The U. Commercial Service provides U. The Peace Corps has more than volunteers working throughout Kazakhstan in business education, English teaching, and the development of environmental non-governmental organizations. The United States supports increased citizen participation in the public arena through support for non-governmental organizations NGOs.

Dozens of grants have been provided to support NGOs that promote an independent media, legal reform, women's rights, civic education, and legislative oversight. USAID also has provided training courses for leaders and professionals. The search for natural sources. Biosynthesis and metabolism.

Forum “Kazakhstan: Three new prison terms”, Document # - www.padam.hu

Total synthesis. Methods of stereoselective synthesis. Methods of structural analysis. Pharmacological research of isoprenoid compounds and their practical application. Molecular-biological, genetic engineering and environmental aspects of isoprenoids. Production technology of original drugs based on isoprenoids. Deadlines May 01 Oral abstracts deadline. Poster abstract deadline. Standard registration deadline. Professor Sergazy Adekenov Kazakhstan.

Professor Satyajit Sarker United Kingdom.

Professor Jerzy Wicha Poland. Professor Giovanni Appendino Italy. Professor Jeroen S. Dickschat Germany. Professor Muhammad Iqbal Choudhary Pakistan. Professor Vladimir V.

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